Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard

          My final blog for this semester is about a woman who was dubbed as the “Lady of the Flies.” Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard was born on October 20, 1942 in Germany. While she was growing up, the world was experiencing the end of World War II. She grew up in a household where the children were taught to sew their own clothes and grow their own food. Christiane’s family were all artists and musicians. Although Christiane showed some talent in the arts, her heart was set on biology. Her parents and siblings were extremely supportive and would often listen to Christiane’s wonderful ideas about science.

            Christiane loved to study what she was interested in. Her teachers called her a brilliant student but very lazy. Christiane found that she had to work hard in a man’s world, especially since women were meant to stay at home. She decided from the beginning that her studies had to come first. She eventually earned a PhD in molecular biology in 1974. Christiane wanted to study something new and different. She was instantly attracted to the area of development in Drosophila (fruit flies). She always found fruit flies fascinating, and she wanted to know how a single cell could turn into a complicated organism.

            Christiane and her team began working on fruit fly embryos. Fruit flies were chosen due to their fast reproduction rate. She would expose the embryo to a mutagen and see how this would affect the fly’s development. Through multiple experiments, she figured out which genes controlled which body part. She even studied a fly that had no head. Instead, it had two tails. Christiane and her team identified about 5,000 genes that were vital to a fruit fly’s development. Her work eventually led to a better understanding on how human develop and how birth defects can affect development. Christiane, along with Eric Wieschaus and Edward B. Lewis, was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1995. Christiane currently works on zebrafish to study mutations and vertebrate development.

            Christiane was a woman who knew what she wanted and knew what she loved. She loved fruit flies so much she admitted to dreaming about them. That amount of love for research and fruit flies is incredibly admirable. One of the greatest traits scientists have is their passion for their interests. To think that some people believe that women shouldn’t have a passion for science is unbelievable. Yet, women continue to prove that they can change the world. Hopefully the women I talked about inspired some of you to learn more about women in science. We’re a pretty cool bunch, if I so say so myself.

 

Sources

“Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World,” written and illustrated by Rachel Ignotofsky.

Dr. Christiane  Nüsslein-Volhard: http://www.famousscientists.org/christiane-nusslein-volhard/

http://www.dnaftb.org/37/bio-2.html

Esther Lederberg

          Esther was born in New York City in the Bronx. Her family was poor, so she took it upon herself to pay for her own education. She graduated high school at 16 years old. Her intellect helped her get scholarships for college. At first, Esther wanted to study French. However, she was intrigued with biochemistry. She went on to get her Master’s in genetics. Esther worked as a teaching assistant to help pay for graduate school, but at times she was forced to eat frog legs from leftover dissections. After completing graduate school, she married Joshua Lederberg, a fellow scientist.

            Esther made some incredible contributions to microbiology and molecular biology. Esther was working on her PhD at the University of Wisconsin when she made an amazing discovery. She was studying a strain of E. coli that contained a mutated gene. She noticed something strange about the colonies. Some of the colonies looked as though they were nibbled on. Esther had discovered lambda phage. This bacteriophage would insert its genetic material into its host cell. The phage’s genes would chill out in the host’s DNA, and be continuously replicated along with the host’s DNA. Soon, there would be a colony of host cells with phage genes. The phage is activated when the host cell undergoes environmental stress. This triggers the phage to burst out of the host cell, thereby killing the host. Esther’s discovery of lambda phage led to a better understanding of how bacterial genes are passed on and how viruses work. Lambda phase is also used for inserting genetic markers into a desired cell, antibiotic resistance, and cloning.

            Esther also discovered the F plasmid, which is used by the lambda phage to transfer genetic material to another cell. She also created a new method called replica plating. Part of her main research was mutations in bacterial colonies. She shorted the traditional method with a velvet stamp. Esther would press on a bacterial colony with the stamp, and then press the stamp on different plates. The plates would be introduced to different environmental conditions. This helped Esther see bacterial mutations firsthand. Her method proved that bacteria have the ability to mutate spontaneously.

 Despite Esther’s contributions, it was her husband who was primarily credited. After her replication plate method was developed, Joshua shared a Nobel Peace Prize with George W. Beadle and Edward Tatum in 1958. In Joshua’s acceptance, he never once credited her even though she was the main contributor to the award. Joshua also got the best jobs. As the wife, Esther was given jobs which she was grossly overqualified for. Sometimes she wasn’t even paid. When they co-wrote articles, Joshua’s name would always be ahead of Esther’s. Esther and Joshua eventually divorced in 1966. Esther continued her remining scientific career at Stanford, where she studied plasmids. After she retired, she still continued researching. She also created a recorder orchestra. Her love of music led her to her new husband, Matthew Simon, who also loved music. Esther died in 2006 from pneumonia. I was simultaneously inspired and saddened with how things worked out for her. She deserved so much more recognition for her work, and yet the men in her life would not give her the proper credit. Esther worked so hard doing what she loved. The least we can do is recognize and remember her.

 

Sources

“Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World,” written and illustrated by Rachel Ignotofsky.

Esther Lederberg: http://schaechter.asmblog.org/schaechter/2014/07/esther-lederberg-pioneer-of-bacterial-genetics.html

http://www.whatisbiotechnology.org/people/Lederberg_Esther

Jane Cooke Wright

           In the 1940s, cancer was still only barely understood. Scientists were trying everything they could to learn more about cancer and how to treat it. Jane Cooke Wright ended up playing a key role in cancer research. She was born in New York City in 1919. Jane was born into a family of scholars. Her grandfather was the first African-American to graduate from Yale. Her father was the first African-American to graduate from Harvard, and he founded the Harlem Hospital’s Cancer Research Foundation. Jane graduated from New York medical college in 1945. At first, she mainly worked as a doctor for public schools. However, she decided to quit her job and work with her father at his research center. After her father’s death, she became the head of the research center at the age of 33.

            Cancer research was still in its infant years. Treatment was unpleasant. Whole organs sometimes had to be removed. Apparently doctors even tried injecting mustard gas into cancer patients. Jane wanted to improve treatment methods. She spent her research on trying to find an effective way to combat tumors. Rather than testing her methods on individual mice, she would test her drugs on cancer tissue samples. Jane’s accomplishments include refining techniques that involved chemotherapy and methotrexate. She used chemotherapy to specifically attack tumors in area that were hard to reach. Methotrexate, at the time, was being studied as a treatment for leukemia. However, Jane used methotrexate to attack the breast cancer directly and saw that the tumors went into remission. Methotrexate is now widely used to treat cancer, as well as some autoimmune diseases.

 

            Jane’s accomplishments in oncology led her to become one of the nation’s top doctor in cancer research. She wrote over one hundred papers on cancer treatment research within forty years. In 1964, she was appointed to the President’s Commission on Heart Disease, Cancer, and Stroke by Lyndon B. Johnson. She was the head of many cancer research groups in Africa, China, and Europe. Jane became the highest-ranking African-American woman in medicine by 1967. She helped found the American Society of Clinical Oncology, and she became the president of the New York Cancer Society in 1971. Jane continued her research and her teaching until she retired in 1987.

Jane’s hard work helped scientists everywhere better understand how to treat cancer. It is because of her work that cancer research is where it is today. Jane is a fantastic example of a woman scientist who is underappreciated. I wanted to share Jane, not only for the incredible work she did, but also to show how women of color in science are often overlooked. Thankfully, more and more women of color in science fields are being talked about. Jane was a dedicated doctor. She paved the way for many women in medicine, and she deserves to be recognized for her work.

 

Sources

“Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World,” written and illustrated by Rachel Ignotofsky

Dr. Jane C. Wright: https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_336.html

http://www.aacr.org/Research/Awards/Pages/jane-cooke-wright.aspx#.WCX9UDHrvIU

Rita Levi-Montalcini

          Who’s ready to learn about an awesome lady who didn’t let anything get in her way during her scientific career? Meet Rita Levi-Montalcini, an Italian Jewish woman who took the world by storm. She was born April 22, 1909. Her father was a mathematician and her mother was a painter. Despite her family’s love for culture and intellect, Rita’s father believed that women with careers wouldn’t make suitable wives. Rita soon realized she could never fit into the “proper lady” role her father imagined for her. After some persuasion, she eventually persuaded her father to let her become a doctor. She graduated from the University of Turin with a medical degree in 1936.

            Just two years after Rita graduated, Benito Mussolini’s Manifesto of Race forbade Jews from practicing medicine. She was forced to maintain a low profile during World War II. However, she didn’t let this war get in the way of her research. She made her own research lab in her home and studied the nerve growth in chicken embryos. After the war, Rita re-entered the scientific community. She was invited to work at Washington University in Saint Louis for one year, but she ended up staying for thirty years as a professor and researcher. While Rita was studying tissue growth, she discovered a protein called nerve growth factor (NGF). NGF helps maintain healthy nerve growth. It also plays roles in the immune system, ovulation, pancreatic cells, and even romantic love. The discovery of NGF helped scientists better understand cell growth, cancer cells, and diseases such as Alzheimer’s.

            Rita was awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in physiology or medicine 1986, along with her research partner Stanley Cohen. In 2001, she became an Italian senator for life. She continued her research until she died at 103. Rita experienced many hurdles throughout her life, but she never once gave up on her love for medicine. Her hard work eventually paid off, and she ended up contributing a great discovery about the nervous system. This is only the tip of the iceberg. Rita did so much with her life. She spent almost every minute trying to learn how to better humanity. Rita is a woman worth looking up to, and she deserves to be recognized for her achievements.

 

Sources

“Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World,” written and illustrated by Rachel Ignotofsky.

Rita Levi-Montalcini: http://www.famousscientists.org/rita-levi-montalcini/

http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/mig/bios/levi-montalcini.html

Elizabeth Blackwell

          Elizabeth’s Blackwell’s story is one of great determination. She was originally born in England in 1821. When she was eleven years old, her family moved to the United States. Elizabeth’s parents strongly believed in equality for all and that all their children should be educated. At first, Elizabeth only wanted to teach. She couldn’t imagine herself becoming a physician. She hated the sight of illustrations of the human body in medical books. During Elizabeth’s teaching career, a friend of hers got sick and died. Her friend confided that if she had had a female doctor, her whole ordeal would’ve been less trying. It was then that Elizabeth was determined to be a doctor.

            Elizabeth applied to many colleges. All the colleges had rejected her, expect for Geneva Medical College in New York. She was admitted by the student body as a practical joke. They never imagined a woman would seriously consider being a doctor. Elizabeth came in with the determination to learn. She faced many challenges. She was forced to sit apart from her male peers. The townsfolk disapproved of a woman stepping out of the gender norm. Her professors were uncomfortable with a woman in their anatomy classes. During a class on reproduction, Elizabeth was asked to leave because it would be too much for a delicate woman. She stubbornly remained in the classroom. Elizabeth proved she was just as capable as her male peers, and she graduated in 1849 at the top of her class. Thus, she became the first woman in America to earn a medical degree.

            Elizabeth worked as a physician for a couple of years in London and Paris. In Paris, she was caring for a sick infant. She contracted the infection, causing her to lose sight in one eye. This was a hard blow for Elizabeth since she had wanted to become a surgeon. Now that was no longer an option. She soon returned to New York to continue improving the lives of others. She noticed that there were few opportunities for female physicians to practice. Elizabeth, her sister Emily (who also became a doctor), and Dr. Marie Zakrzewska opened the New Your Infirmary for Indigent Women and Children. Here, poor women could get the medical help they needed, while also providing jobs for female physicians. Elizabeth also founded the Woman’s Medical College of the New York Infirmary and the London School of Medicine for Women.  

            Elizabeth’s story was truly inspiring. She fought so hard for what she wanted, and she wasn’t about to let society pull her down just because she was a woman. She opened many door for women everywhere. She inspired other women to become doctors. She contributed so much, but it took a lot hard work. Sometimes it still takes a lot of hard work for a female scientist to be recognized. We’re fighters though, and the world better watch out.

Sources

“Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World,” written and illustrated by Rachael Ignotofsky

Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell: https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_35.html

How Elizabeth Blackwell Became the First Female Doctor in the U.S.: https://cfmedicine.nlm.nih.gov/physicians/biography_35.html

Barbara McClintock

          The 1900s was an exciting time for genetics. Mendel’s laws of inheritance were just beginning to take root in the realm of science. In the midst of the progression of genetics, there was Barbara McClintock. She was born in 1902. She was a bit of a tomboy. This made her an outcast with both the girls and boys she grew up around. She didn’t let it bother her too much. Barbara preferred being by herself and doing her schoolwork. Her teachers thought she was an exceedingly bright child, and they encouraged her to go on to college. With the support of her father, she eventually earned her PhD in botany at Cornell University in 1927.

Cornell marked the beginnings of her scientific career. Barbara absolutely loved genetics. It fascinated her to no end. In her first major research project, she worked with Harriet Creighton, and together they proved chromosomal crossover. Chromosomal crossover occurs sex cells. What happens is that genes are shuffled to make new combinations of genes. This is why organisms show different genetic variations from their fellow species. This process was theorized by Thomas Morgan, but Barbara and Harriet provided the first conclusive proof of chromosomal crossover. Barbara went on to work at the University of Missouri. Despite Barbara’s hard work and great skills as a geneticist, she never was truly accepted. Her male peers found her intimidating. Even her fashion, which mostly consisted of pants, was criticized. The dean of the university thought that Barbara should act like a “proper lady scientist” and get married. However, if she did, she would be fired. Barbara decided to leave Cornell to do research in Cold Spring Harbor in New York.

This is where Barbara’s life starts getting really exciting. She was studying corn genes. She was curious why is it that sometimes the kernels on the same corn were different colors. When she was researching this phenomenon, she found that the genes expressing the kernels color “jumped!” This was a huge discovery. Before this, it was thought that chromosomes were stable, and that the genes stayed in certain places. These jumping genes, or transposons, would cause relocations, insertions, and deletions. In the corn kernels, the relocation of certain genes would turn the purple color on or off. Barbara presented her research in 1951. Sadly, she was ahead of her time. No one understood her methods, so they didn’t take stock in her research. She didn’t mind too much. She believed in her results. It would take two decades for scientists to start taking her work seriously. She eventually won a Nobel Peace Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1983. She lived her remaining years doing what she loved most; research.

As a female scientist, Barbara had to work hard to be accepted. Yet, acceptance was never truly her goal in life. She wanted to learn, and she wanted to set an example for young girls everywhere. She wanted to show them that it doesn’t matter what other people think. She wanted them to know that they were born to make history. Women continue to break boundaries. It’s amazing how far we have come, but we still have more work to do.

Sources

Barbara McClintock: http://www.famousscientists.org/barbara-mcclintock/

Barbara McClintock Facts: https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1983/mcclintock-facts.html

 The Barbara McClintock Papers: https://profiles.nlm.nih.gov/ps/retrieve/Narrative/LL/p-nid/45

Alice Ball

           Since ancient times, leprosy has been viewed as one of the worst thing anyone count contract. Lepers were seen as unclean and were ostracized. Before the mid-1900s, leprosy was only vaguely understood. Leprosy (now called Hansen’s disease) is caused by a bacterial infection. Despite it's reputation, it's not as contagious as the stories make it out to be. It is spread mainly when fluids from the nose are shared or by breathing in the bacteria. Symptoms, which includes scaly skin, numbness, blindness, and paralysis, can appear anywhere from two to twenty years after first contracting the disease. Anyone who had leprosy were treated as lost causes. There seemed to be no hope for anyone with this disease. However, one woman came along and made an amazing discovery.

Alice Ball completely changed how we treated leprosy. She was born in 1892. Her parents were extremely supportive of Alice’s love for science. She eventually earned degrees in chemistry and pharmacy from the University of Washington. After this, Alice moved to Hawaii, where she was the first woman and the first African-America to be accepted into the graduate program. At the time, lepers were sent to one of the Hawaiian islands called Molokai. Lepers were treated with oil made from the seeds of the chaulmoogra tree. This treatment only offered some relief. If it was ingested, it would cause stomach pains. If it was placed on the skin, there was no effect. If it was injected, it would just burn under the skin. Chaulmoogra oil is very hard to inject into someone because it was so thick and it didn’t mix well with water.

Alice’s mentor, Dr. Harry Hollmann, asked if she would be interested in trying to make chaulmoogra oil more soluble so it could be injected. This has plagued scientists for centuries, but Alice managed to find a way. Alice figured out a way to isolate ethyl esters in the fatty acids. It could then be easily mixed with water and safely injected. Her research had a tremendous effect. This was the first reasonable cure for leprosy the world has seen. Seventy-eight of the lepers were healed to such an extent, they were allowed to go home. People who just caught leprosy didn’t have to be sent to Molokai. Alice’s cure, dubbed the Ball method, continued to be used until the 1940s. Current treatments involves a heavy antibiotic regimen that can last anywhere from six months to two years.

Here comes the sad part of this story. Alice died at the young age of 24 before she could publish her results. The president of the university, Arthur Dean, decided to continue her work. He eventually published his own research without crediting Alice! The betrayal! Dr. Hollmann argued against him, and tried to give Alice the credit she deserved. It wasn’t until 2000 when she was finally recognized for her treatment. Today, she is properly remembered as a pioneer of chemistry.

The story of Alice Ball is bittersweet. We have this incredibly smart, talented woman. Her research benefited so many people, and yet all her hard work was snatched away from her. It took about eighty years until she was credited with the Ball method! Unfortunately, she is not the only woman whose work was taken without credit. Thankfully, we live in a day and age where women are encouraged in their scientific explorations. There’s still some challenges out there, but that hasn’t stopped us. We the opportunity to show the world exactly what we’re capable of.

 

Sources

“Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World,” written and illustreated by Rachel Ignotofsky

Articles on Alice Ball: http://www.blackpast.org/aaw/ball-alice-augusta-1892-1916

https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10125/1837

https://blue-stocking.org.uk/2016/02/29/alice-ball-and-the-fight-against-leprosy/

Leprosy: https://www.cdc.gov/leprosy/index.html

Gerty and Carl Cori

           I’m not much of a romantic, but the lives of Gerty and Carl Cori managed to tug at my heart strings a little. They were both born in 1896 and lived in Prague. Carl was basically groomed from birth to be a professor. Gerty was fortunate enough to have a family who encouraged her to pursue a higher education, despite the challenges for being a Jewish woman. She was one of only a handful of women studying medicine at her university. It was here where she met Carl, a fellow student at the university, for the first time. They were inseparable from the start. After they graduated, they got married. They moved to Buffalo, New York a few years later to escape the pressures in Europe brought by World War II.

            Carl absolutely refused any job where he and Gerty could not work together. They were met with some resistance, but soon everyone knew of Gerty’s competence as a biochemist. Despite working together, Gerty was still paid a much lower wage than her husband. But they still continued on with their work. It was Gerty who had the main ideas, and her husband supported her through and through. Together, they will eventually publish fifty papers in a span of nine years. During the 1920s, it was understood that sugar is used as energy for the body and that insulin helped regulate sugar levels in diabetics. However, the exact process was unknown. Gerty’s own father had died from diabetes, and this is what influenced her to focus on sugar metabolism.

Through tireless research, the Coris figured out how humans processed sugar for energy. They discovered this process in 1929, and named it the Cori cycle. How it works is that glucose in the liver is transported to the muscles. Once the glucose is used for its energy, it turns into lactic acid. The lactic acid is then processed in the liver and turned into glycogen. The glycogen is broken down into glucose, and the cycle starts over. The enzyme that transforms glycogen into glucose was discovered to be phosphorylase. Together, the Coris also managed to make glycogen in a test tube. This was the first time such a large, complicated molecule was created in a tube. For their efforts, they were awarded a Nobel Peace Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947. Their discovery helped further research concerning diabetes. The Coris’ lab eventually

            Although they co-discovered the Cori cycle, it was Carl who received countless job offers. However, he ended up turning down most of them because they wouldn’t allow Gerty to work with him. Soon, Gerty would develop a bone marrow disease that severely weakened her.  She absolutely refused to quit her research. Carl would even carry her around her lab when she could no longer walk. She continued to work in her lab until the day she died in 1957. Gerty’s and Carl’s story shows how much we need to support our lady scientists out there. Even today, women only take up about a quarter of the STEM work force. Thankfully, the number of women studying science is on the rise. The important thing is to support women in their research and to encourage little girls that they truly can be whoever they want to be when they grow up. Who knows, maybe one day one of those little girls will make a discovery that will shock the world down to its core.

 

Sources
“Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World,” written and Illustrated by Rachel Ignotofsky

Gerty Cori- Facts: https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1947/cori-gt-facts.html

Gerty T. Cori (1896-1957): http://beckerexhibits.wustl.edu/mig/bios/corig.html

Dr. Gerty Theresa Radnitz Cori:  https://www.nlm.nih.gov/changingthefaceofmedicine/physicians/biography_69.html

 

Carl and Gerty Cori and Carbohydrate Metabolism: https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/education/whatischemistry/landmarks/carbohydratemetabolism.html

Self-Lubrication

            Over the summer, I had the immense pleasure of buying a new book called Bonk: The Curious Coupling of Science and Sex by Mary Roach. I learned many new things, but there’s one thing that stood out. You know when a woman is aroused, they self-lubricate right? It’s pretty awesome. Go us! Okay, stay with me. Turns out that self-lubrication is not a glandular secretion. It’s actually plasma seeing through the vaginal walls. That’s right plasma. The broth that hold blood cells. This is easily the most incredible fun-fact I’ve ever heard.

            When a man is aroused, blood rushes to their groin, fills their penis, thus creating an erection. In a woman, the blood goes in the same direction. The clitoris is engorged and plasma seeps through the walls. The Bartholin’s glands also provide some mucus for lubrication, but plasma is the primary lubricant. The main peptide hormone controlling this phenomenon is vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP). In humans, VIP comes from the VIP gene. This main function of VIP is to increase blood flow. It is found in many regions of the body including the brain, the heart, and the small intestine. It has multiple functions, and one of them is stimulating self-lubrication by increasing blood flow. This lubrication is used to reduce friction during the act. If one is not aroused or cannot self-lubricate normally, painful sex can occur. Vaginal dryness can be the result of menopause, some types of birth control, and a disease called Sjögren's syndrome, which causes secretory glands in the human body to work inefficiently.

            Studies on sex are often considered taboo, and the researcher is sometimes heavily judged. Plus, approving a study on human sex has always proved to be difficult. There is still so much to learn about the human body, and sex is just a normal, evolutionary act. The entire point of science is to understand the world around us, and yet it is still hindered by societal norms and cultural constraints. Not only that, but sexual education is severely lacking in public schools. Personally, we weren't taught anything except that chastity is the only way to go. By providing proper sex education, we can prepare teenagers for a safer, healthier future.

Sources

“Bonk: The Curious Coupling of Science and Sex,” written by Mary Roach

Vaginal Lubrication: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaginal_lubrication

Why is vaginal lubrication important for women? http://www.issm.info/sexual-health-qa/why-is-vaginal-lubrication-important-for-women

Sjögren's syndrome: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sj%C3%B6gren%27s_syndrome 

Nettie Stevens

          Since my article on Elizabeth Blackburn was a big hit and it lead an interesting conversation on telomeres, I figured why stop there? Let’s tackle another awesome lady scientist! Nettie Stevens born in 1861. She spent most of her life teaching to make enough money for college. She eventually went on to get her master’s degree at Stanford University, and she got her PhD at Bryn Mawr College. Her professor Thomas Hunt Morgan adored her and spoke very highly of her. Her mentor Edmund Wilson also supported her in her education.

            Nettie’s most notable research was on mealworms. She studied other insects as well, but let’s focus on the mealworms. She was studying their chromosomes, and she noticed something strange. The female mealworms had a pair of X chromosomes, while the males had a set of XY chromosomes. The Y chromosomes was named so because when Nettie saw the Y chromosome, it appeared as though it was a piece of an X chromosome was cut off, leaving a Y shape. This was the first official discovery of sex chromosomes. Before Nettie, scientists didn’t understand how sex was determined. People thought that the sex of the fetus was determined by the pregnant woman’s body temperature (warmer temperatures were said to produce males) and what the woman ate. Scientists had guessed that something else controlled sex, but they couldn’t figure out what. Nettie provided solid evidence that sex was determined by these special chromosomes. She published her work, but was met with criticism. At the same time, Edmund Wilson was also working on the discovery of sex chromosomes. Although Nettie’s research was better supported, she is often overlooked. Nettie died of breast cancer just seven years after she published her work, and she never got to see the impact she made on genetics. Fortunately, she is now starting to get the recognition she deserves.

            All right, so sex chromosomes were discovered, now what? What came out of this new information? Thomas Hunt Morgan’s research on Drosophila melanogaster was made possible by Nettie’s findings. Mendelian and chromosomal theories of inheritance were further supported with Nettie’s research. A few years down the line, the SRY gene was identified. This is the gene that controls typical male trait expressions. If SRY is expressed, you are determined as a male. No SRY gene, you grow to be a female. We gained a better understanding of sex linked traits and diseases. We found that XX/XY sex chromosomes were not the only systems. Lizard males, for example, have ZZ chromosomes. Scientists are beginning to understand that sex determination in humans isn’t as binary as we think it is. Nettie was an incredible scientist, who worked hard for her education, who was at the top of her classes, and who loved research with all her heart. She helped pave the way for the future of genetics.

 

Sources

Specialized Chromosomes Determine Gender: Nettie Maria Stevens: http://www.dnaftb.org/9/bio.html

Sex Chromosomes: http://www.biology-pages.info/S/SexChromosomes.html

SRY Gene: https://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/gene/SRY

 
“Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World,” written and illustrated by Rachel Ignotofsky.

The History of the Micropipette

           One of the most important tools in molecular biology, or any other scientific field, is the micropipette. This extremely valuable tool is used to draw up and dispense small amounts of liquid samples. Despite the great value of these tools, their history is not well known. Honestly, the topic of the history of the micropipette does sound boring. Trust me when I say the story is far from boring. One article depicting a brief timeline of the micropipette even has “vampires” as a specific tag. We’re not here to discuss the possibility of vampires using early pipettes as a way to draw up blood, we’re here to talk about Heinrich Schnitger.
 

Heinrich Schnitger created the first mechanical micropipette in 1957. During his time as a postdoc, mouth pipettes were still used in labs. You know, those mouth pipettes that our lab manuals and our professors always warned us about? Mouth pipetting was not a pleasant experience. There was a constant danger of accidentally inhaling harmful substances. The pipettes required great accuracy skill. They were ridiculously hard to clean, and they tended to break a lot. Schnitger was so annoyed by mouth pipettes, he decided work on a spring loaded micropipette in the middle of his research. He literally disappeared for a few days to work on a new micropipette!

 

The new micropipette was a hit in the lab. Experiments went by faster, and the pipette was not corroded by the caustic substances they were using. His boss was so impressed he told Schnitger to take a break from research to keep working on the micropipette. Eventually, Schnitger realized that the improved micropipette was getting to be a huge sensation, and he applied for a patent, which was accepted in 1961. Schnitger continued to tinker and make adjustments to make the micropipette a more effective tool. Unfortunately, he died in 1964 before his invention started to become popular globally.

Later on in the 1980s, two men by the names of Henry Lardy and Warren Gilson used Schnitger’s designs to make their own version of the micropipette in the United States. They fixed it up, made it more comfortable to use, and turned it into the micropipette we know and love today. They did all this by using loopholes in Schnitger’s patent to create their own brand of micropipette.

It was Schnitger’s unique personality, his creative way of thinking, and his love for efficiency that helped him create one of the most revolutionary tools in science. When people think of scientists, they sometimes think of these stiff, humorless people in white lab coats. What people don’t realize is that scientists are one of the most creative groups of people on this Earth. They’re curious, they’ll put themselves in harm’s way for the sake of knowledge, and they’ll break rules to make a process better. Scientists come in all shapes and sizes, with all sorts skillsets and humors. Schnitger was one of a kind, and he made a one of a kind tool.

 

Sources

https://www.biotech.wisc.edu/outreach/resources/the-micropipette-story

http://www.the-scientist.com/?articles.view/articleNo/19720/title/The-Original-Micropipette/

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1369176/

http://futurescienceleaders.org/researchers2012/2012/09/history-of-pipetting/

Elizabeth Blackburn

There are a few famous scientists who actually study molecular biology. Mostly they study a field like genetics and use molecular biology techniques in their research. Elizabeth Blackburn is one of the few who’s field is molecular biology. She is originally from Tasmania, Australia and is currently teaching at the University of California San Francisco. For her PhD, she worked on researching the mysteries of DNA. There were still many things to be discovered about DNA in the 1970s. Elizabeth was absolutely captivated with DNA. She wanted to know everything about it. At the time, people understood that DNA was contained in tightly bound chromosomes, but the structure was still somewhat of a mystery.

Elizabeth focused on the ends of the chromosomes and discovered the makeup of these ends in 1980. The ends of chromosomes are made of telomeres. Telomeres are essentially segments of repeating DNA sequences. Those sequences didn’t encode for any RNA or protein. So what was their purpose? Why would chromosomes deliberately create non-coding repeating sequences? Telomeres are actually extremely important segments in chromosomes. Whenever a cell divides, a small part of the DNA ends is snipped off. The telomeres protect essential DNA sequences from being cut off curing cell division. With parts of the telomeres cut off, the DNA can express efficiently. Elizabeth’s discovery helped us understand the aging process better. As we get older, our telomeres get shorter, which leads to problems such as Alzheimer’s and cancer. A few years after discovering telomeres, Elizabeth also co-discovered telomerase with Carol Greider. Telomerase is responsible for keeping telomeres at an appropriate length. Too long or too short telomeres both result in issues that can seriously affect one’s health. For her contributions, Elizabeth was awarded the Noble Peace Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2009. Elizabeth’s work has opened doors to research not only in DNA, but also in medicine, cancer research, and research of the ageing process.

 

 

Sources

Ignotofsky, Rachel. “Women in Science: 50 Fearless Pioneers Who Changed the World.” N.p.: Ten Speed Press Publishing, n.d. Print.

"Elizabeth H. Blackburn - Facts". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 9 Sep 2016.              http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2009/blackburn-facts.html

“What Is a Telomere?" Yourgenome.org. The Public Engagement Team at the Wellcome             Genome Campus, 2016. Web. 09 Sept. 2016.

http://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-a-telomere